Unit IV — National Protection of Human Rights in India

“The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.” — Article 14, Constitution of India

Human Rights and the Indian Constitution

flowchart TD
    C["Constitution of India — 1950"]:::root
    C --> P["Preamble — Justice, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"]:::section
    C --> FR["Part III — Fundamental Rights — Arts. 12–35"]:::section
    C --> DPSP["Part IV — Directive Principles of State Policy — Arts. 36–51"]:::section
    C --> FD["Part IVA — Fundamental Duties — Art. 51A"]:::section
    FR --> B["Art. 32 — Right to Constitutional Remedies — Heart and Soul — Dr Ambedkar"]:::key
    DPSP --> D1["Art. 39A — Free Legal Aid"]:::key
    DPSP --> D2["Art. 45 — Free Education — now Art. 21A"]:::key
    DPSP --> D3["Art. 47 — Right to Nutrition and Health"]:::key

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Fundamental Rights — Part III (Arts. 12–35)

Art. 21 — Expanded Interpretation: Supreme Court has read into Art. 21 — right to privacy (Puttaswamy 2017), right to livelihood (Olga Tellis 1985), right to health (Paschim Banga 1996), right to education (before Art. 21A), right to a clean environment (M.C. Mehta), right to food, right to legal aid.

The Five Writs — Art. 32 and Art. 226

flowchart TD
    W["Constitutional Writs"]:::root
    W --> HC["Habeas Corpus — Have the body — Release from illegal detention"]:::writ
    W --> MAN["Mandamus — We command — Compel performance of public duty"]:::writ
    W --> PR["Prohibition — Stop inferior court from exceeding jurisdiction"]:::writ
    W --> CER["Certiorari — To be certified — Quash order of inferior court"]:::writ
    W --> QW["Quo Warranto — By what authority — Challenge to public office"]:::writ

    HC --> HC1["Filed against any authority — even private if detention"]:::note
    MAN --> MAN1["Not against President or Governors — not against private persons"]:::note
    QW --> QW1["Only for public offices created by statute"]:::note

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Art. 32 vs Art. 226: Art. 32 lies only before Supreme Court for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. Art. 226 lies before High Courts — wider scope — for any legal right, not just Fundamental Rights.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

flowchart TD
    PIL["Public Interest Litigation — PIL"]:::root
    PIL --> OR["Origin — Justice P.N. Bhagwati and Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer — 1970s–80s"]:::section
    PIL --> FT["Features"]:::section
    FT --> F1["Locus standi relaxed — any public-spirited person can file"]:::feat
    FT --> F2["Letter or postcard can be treated as writ petition"]:::feat
    FT --> F3["Socio-economic rights enforcement — bonded labour, prisoners"]:::feat
    FT --> F4["Court appoints Commissioner to investigate"]:::feat
    FT --> F5["Continuing mandamus — court monitors implementation"]:::feat
    PIL --> KEY["Key Cases"]:::section
    KEY --> K1["Hussainara Khatoon 1979 — undertrial prisoners — Art. 21"]:::case
    KEY --> K2["Bandhua Mukti Morcha 1984 — bonded labour"]:::case
    KEY --> K3["Vishaka 1997 — sexual harassment at workplace"]:::case
    KEY --> K4["M.C. Mehta series — environment and Art. 21"]:::case
    KEY --> K5["NALSA v. UoI 2014 — transgender rights — Art. 14, 19, 21"]:::case

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Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (PHRA)

The PHRA 1993 gives statutory force to India’s human rights obligations. It created the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) and empowers States to create State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs).

Key Definitions — PHRA 1993

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

flowchart TD
    NHRC["National Human Rights Commission — NHRC"]:::root
    NHRC --> COMP["Composition — S.3"]:::section
    COMP --> C1["Chairperson — Retired Chief Justice of India"]:::member
    COMP --> C2["Four Members — retired SC judges or persons with HR experience"]:::member
    COMP --> C3["Seven ex-officio members — heads of statutory commissions"]:::member
    NHRC --> PWR["Powers — S.13"]:::section
    PWR --> P1["Inquire into complaints of HR violations by State actors"]:::power
    PWR --> P2["Visit jails and other institutions"]:::power
    PWR --> P3["Review constitutional and statutory safeguards"]:::power
    PWR --> P4["Recommend compensation and prosecution"]:::power
    NHRC --> LIM["Limitations"]:::section
    LIM --> L1["Cannot investigate armed forces directly — S.19"]:::limit
    LIM --> L2["Complaint must be within 1 year of violation — S.36(2)"]:::limit
    LIM --> L3["Powers of Civil Court — but only recommendatory"]:::limit

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State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs)

PHRA allows State Governments to establish SHRCs under S.21. The Chairperson is a retired Chief Justice of a High Court.

Role of NGOs in Human Rights Protection

Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are the fourth pillar of human rights enforcement — alongside courts, legislature, and executive.

flowchart TD
    NGO["Role of NGOs in Human Rights"]:::root
    NGO --> A["Documentation — Recording violations, fact-finding, shadow reports to UN treaty bodies"]:::fn
    NGO --> B["Litigation — Filing PILs, amicus briefs, habeas corpus petitions"]:::fn
    NGO --> C["Advocacy — Lobbying for law reform, NHRC complaints, parliamentary testimony"]:::fn
    NGO --> D["Education — Awareness campaigns, legal literacy, community paralegal training"]:::fn
    NGO --> E["Relief — Victim support, shelter, legal aid, rehabilitation"]:::fn
    NGO --> F["Monitoring — Prison visits, asylum camps, tribal displacement"]:::fn

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✏️ Sample Solved Problem (IRAC Method)

Problem: A tribal community in State X is forcibly displaced from their forest land for a mining project. No rehabilitation is provided, no prior consultation done. Their leader writes a postcard to the Supreme Court. (a) Can the Court act? (b) What rights are violated? (c) Can the NHRC act?

I — Issue

Whether the Supreme Court can treat the postcard as a writ petition and whether the forced eviction without rehabilitation and consultation violates Fundamental Rights under the Constitution; and the NHRC’s jurisdiction.

R — Rule

• Art. 21 — Right to life — includes right to livelihood (Olga Tellis 1985), right to shelter (Chameli Singh 1996)
• Art. 19(1)(d)(e) — Freedom of movement and residence
• PIL — Hussainara Khatoon (1979): SC can treat any communication as a petition when rights of the poor are violated — epistolary jurisdiction
• Forest Rights Act, 2006 — Tribal communities have legal right to forest land and prior consultation is mandatory
• Art. 32 — SC can issue any appropriate direction for enforcement of Fundamental Rights
• PHRA 1993, S.12 — NHRC can inquire into complaints of HR violations by State agents

A — Analysis

The Supreme Court’s PIL jurisdiction (Art. 32) allows it to treat the postcard as a writ petition — Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration confirmed letters can be treated as petitions. The forced eviction violates Art. 21 (right to livelihood and shelter) and Art. 19(1)(d) (freedom of residence). The absence of rehabilitation and prior consultation violates the Forest Rights Act and Art. 300A (right to property). The State’s action — done without due process — is arbitrary under Art. 14.

NHRC: Can act under S.12 PHRA as this involves violation by State agents (district administration). However, if the SC has already taken up the matter, NHRC may defer.

C — Conclusion

The Supreme Court can and should act on the postcard — epistolary jurisdiction under PIL. The displacement violates Arts. 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution. The NHRC can also independently inquire under PHRA and recommend rehabilitation and compensation. The State must restore possession or provide adequate resettlement as directed by the Court.

📄 The full PDF bundle has 6 more problems for Unit IV — including NHRC jurisdiction limits against armed forces, SHRC v. NHRC conflict, PIL misuse doctrine, Art. 21 expanded rights problem, and the untouchability prohibition under Art. 17. Get the Notes + Question Bank bundle — ₹199