Unit I — Nature, Theories & Sources of Human Rights

“Rights without which a person cannot live with dignity.” — Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, Section 2(1)(d)

What Are Human Rights? — Definitions

In one line: A human right is a basic claim that every person carries from birth — you cannot earn it, lose it, or sell it.

Nature and Characteristics of Human Rights

flowchart TD
    R["Nature of Human Rights"]:::root
    R --> A["Inherent — Born with the person; not given by State"]:::leaf
    R --> B["Universal — Apply to all humans without discrimination"]:::leaf
    R --> C["Inalienable — Cannot be sold or surrendered"]:::leaf
    R --> D["Indivisible — Civil + Political + Social + Economic — one set"]:::leaf
    R --> E["Dynamic — Grow with society; new rights added e.g. Privacy"]:::leaf
    R --> F["Limited — Not absolute; subject to public order and morality"]:::leaf
    R --> G["Linked to Duties — Right of one = duty of another"]:::leaf

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Quick Test: A government says “You can speak freely only if you praise the ruling party.” — This violates Universality (only some get it) and Inalienability (the right is made conditional).

Origin and Evolution — Key Milestones

flowchart LR
    A["539 BCE — Cyrus Cylinder"]:::ancient --> B["1215 — Magna Carta"]:::medieval
    B --> C["1628 — Petition of Right"]:::medieval
    C --> D["1689 — English Bill of Rights"]:::medieval
    D --> E["1776 — US Declaration of Independence"]:::modern
    E --> F["1789 — French Declaration of Rights of Man"]:::modern
    F --> G["1864 — Geneva Conventions"]:::modern
    G --> H["1919 — ILO created"]:::modern
    H --> I["1945 — UN Charter"]:::contemporary
    I --> J["1948 — UDHR"]:::contemporary
    J --> K["1966 — ICCPR and ICESCR"]:::contemporary
    K --> L["1993 — Vienna Declaration"]:::contemporary

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Three Generations of Rights — Karel Vasak’s Model (1979)

flowchart TD
    A["Karel Vasak 1979 — French Jurist"]:::main
    A --> B["1st Generation — Liberty — Blue Rights"]:::gen1
    A --> C["2nd Generation — Equality — Red Rights"]:::gen2
    A --> D["3rd Generation — Fraternity — Green Rights"]:::gen3
    B --> B1["Right to Life, Liberty, Speech, Vote, Fair Trial"]:::sub
    C --> C1["Right to Work, Education, Health, Food"]:::sub
    D --> D1["Right to Peace, Environment, Development, Self-determination"]:::sub

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Theories of Human Rights

flowchart TD
    HR["Theories of Human Rights"]:::root
    HR --> NL["Natural Law Theory — Locke, Aquinas, Grotius"]:::theory
    HR --> POS["Positivist Theory — Austin, Bentham"]:::theory
    HR --> SC["Social Contract Theory — Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau"]:::theory
    HR --> UT["Utilitarian Theory — Bentham, J.S. Mill"]:::theory
    HR --> MAR["Marxist Theory — Karl Marx"]:::theory
    HR --> SW["Social Welfare Theory — Roscoe Pound"]:::theory
    HR --> EQ["Liberal Equality Theory — Dworkin, Rawls"]:::theory

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International Bill of Human Rights

flowchart TD
    A["International Bill of Human Rights"]:::root
    A --> B["UDHR — 10 Dec 1948 — 30 Articles — Declaration — not binding"]:::doc1
    A --> C["ICCPR — 1966 — Treaty — binding — Civil and Political Rights"]:::doc2
    A --> D["ICESCR — 1966 — Treaty — binding — Economic Social Cultural Rights"]:::doc3
    A --> E["Optional Protocols — Complaints mechanism and Death Penalty Abolition"]:::doc4

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✏️ Sample Solved Problem (IRAC Method)

Problem: A prisoner in State X is kept in solitary confinement for 5 years without trial. The State argues national security justifies this. Examine whether this violates International Human Rights Law.

I — Issue

Whether prolonged solitary confinement without trial violates non-derogable rights under International Human Rights Law even on grounds of national security.

R — Rule

• UDHR Art. 9 — No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile
• ICCPR Art. 9 — Right to liberty and security; no arbitrary detention; right to trial within reasonable time
• ICCPR Art. 10 — All detained persons shall be treated with humanity and dignity
• ICCPR Art. 14 — Right to fair trial — binding immediately, not progressively
• ICCPR Art. 4 — Derogation in emergencies permitted — but Art. 9(1) (arbitrary detention) retains its core; Art. 10 (humane treatment) is non-derogable
• Nelson Mandela Rules (UN, 2015) — Prolonged solitary confinement (15+ days) is cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment

A — Analysis

Five years without trial is patently arbitrary — no reasonable emergency justification can sustain indefinite detention without judicial oversight. The prisoner’s Art. 9 rights (liberty, security, prompt judicial review) are violated. Five years in solitary confinement constitutes cruel and inhuman treatment under Art. 10 ICCPR and the Nelson Mandela Rules. National security is a permissible ground for some restriction but not indefinite, judicially-unreviewed detention. HRC General Comment 29 confirms that Art. 9’s freedom from arbitrary detention retains irreducible minimum content even during declared emergencies.

C — Conclusion

State X has violated Art. 9 and Art. 10 ICCPR. The detention is arbitrary; the conditions constitute cruel treatment. National security is not a blank cheque for indefinite solitary confinement. The prisoner must be brought before a court promptly or released.

📄 The full PDF bundle has 6 more IRAC problems for Unit I — including the theory application problem, UDHR customary law status, derogation limits, and the International Bill analysis. Get the Notes + Question Bank bundle — ₹199