Unit II — Universal Protection of Human Rights

“We the peoples of the United Nations, determined … to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person …” — Preamble, UN Charter, 1945

Human Rights in the UN Charter — The Seven Mentions

flowchart TD
    A["UN Charter 1945 — The Golden Thread"]:::root
    A --> P["Preamble — reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights"]:::section
    A --> A1["Art. 1(3) — International cooperation for human rights"]:::section
    A --> A13["Art. 13(1)(b) — UNGA recommendations on human rights"]:::section
    A --> A55["Art. 55 — UN shall promote universal respect for human rights"]:::section
    A --> A56["Art. 56 — All Members pledge joint and separate action"]:::section
    A --> A62["Art. 62(2) — ECOSOC may make recommendations"]:::section
    A --> A68["Art. 68 — ECOSOC to set up Commission on Human Rights"]:::section

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The UN Charter does not list specific rights — it is the parent document. The UDHR and the two Covenants are its children.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 (UDHR)

10 December 1948 — Adopted by UNGA: 48 votes for, 0 against, 8 abstentions (USSR bloc + Saudi Arabia + South Africa). Celebrated annually as Human Rights Day.

flowchart TD
    U["UDHR 1948 — 30 Articles"]:::root
    U --> A["Arts. 1–2 — Foundational — Dignity, Equality, Non-discrimination"]:::block
    U --> B["Arts. 3–21 — Civil and Political Rights — Life, Liberty, Fair Trial, Speech, Vote"]:::block
    U --> C["Arts. 22–27 — Economic, Social and Cultural Rights — Work, Education, Health"]:::block
    U --> D["Arts. 28–30 — General — Social order, Duties, No abuse of rights"]:::block

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Important UDHR Articles to Remember

Legal Effect of UDHR

ICCPR — International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966

Drafted over 18 years — entered into force 23 March 1976. India ratified in 1979.

flowchart TD
    I["ICCPR 1966 — 53 Articles"]:::root
    I --> P3["Part III — Substantive Rights — Arts. 6–27"]:::part
    I --> P4["Part IV — Human Rights Committee — Arts. 28–45"]:::part
    P3 --> R1["Right to Life — Art. 6"]:::right
    P3 --> R2["Freedom from Torture — Art. 7"]:::right
    P3 --> R3["No Slavery — Art. 8"]:::right
    P3 --> R4["Liberty and Security — Art. 9"]:::right
    P3 --> R5["Dignity in Detention — Art. 10"]:::right
    P3 --> R6["Fair Trial — Art. 14"]:::right
    P3 --> R7["No Retroactive Law — Art. 15"]:::right
    P3 --> R8["Privacy — Art. 17"]:::right
    P3 --> R9["Expression — Art. 19"]:::right
    P3 --> R10["Assembly and Association — Arts. 21–22"]:::right
    P3 --> R11["Right to Vote — Art. 25"]:::right
    P3 --> R12["Equality — Art. 26"]:::right
    P3 --> R13["Minority Rights — Art. 27"]:::right

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Non-Derogable Rights — Art. 4 ICCPR

Even during a national emergency, these rights cannot be suspended:

Monitoring Machinery

• Human Rights Committee — 18 independent experts
• States submit periodic reports every 5 years
• First Optional Protocol — individual complaints (India has not signed)
• Second Optional Protocol, 1989 — abolition of the death penalty

ICESCR — International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966

Entered into force 3 January 1976. India ratified in 1979.

flowchart TD
    E["ICESCR 1966 — 31 Articles"]:::root
    E --> P3["Part III — Substantive Rights — Arts. 6–15"]:::part
    P3 --> R1["Right to Work — Art. 6"]:::right
    P3 --> R2["Fair Wages and Safe Conditions — Art. 7"]:::right
    P3 --> R3["Trade Unions — Art. 8"]:::right
    P3 --> R4["Social Security — Art. 9"]:::right
    P3 --> R5["Family, Mother and Child — Art. 10"]:::right
    P3 --> R6["Adequate Living Standard including Food — Art. 11"]:::right
    P3 --> R7["Right to Health — Art. 12"]:::right
    P3 --> R8["Right to Education — Arts. 13–14"]:::right
    P3 --> R9["Cultural Life and Science — Art. 15"]:::right

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Key difference: ICESCR duty is progressive — “take steps … to the maximum of available resources” (Art. 2(1)). But progress must be deliberate. A State that does nothing breaches the Covenant.

ICCPR vs ICESCR — Side by Side

UN Human Rights Council (HRC)

flowchart TD
    O["Human Rights Architecture"]:::root
    O --> C1["Commission on Human Rights — 1946 to 2006 — under ECOSOC"]:::old
    O --> C2["Human Rights Council — since 2006 — subsidiary of UNGA"]:::new
    C2 --> F1["47 Members — elected for 3 years — equitable geographic distribution"]:::feat
    C2 --> F2["Universal Periodic Review — UPR — every 4.5 years"]:::feat
    C2 --> F3["Special Rapporteurs and Working Groups"]:::feat
    C2 --> F4["Complaint Procedure — confidential"]:::feat

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UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)

Created by UNGA Resolution 48/141 (1993) after the Vienna World Conference recommendation.

• Rank: Under-Secretary-General — appointed by Secretary-General, approved by UNGA
• Term: 4 years, renewable once
• Functions: Promote human rights, coordinate UN work, engage governments, support treaty bodies, field presence in conflict zones
• Headquarters: Geneva (offices also in New York)

✏️ Sample Solved Problem (IRAC Method)

Problem: State Y ratifies ICCPR. During a declared state of emergency it suspends the right to fair trial and detains 200 people for 3 years without producing them before a court. It argues Art. 4 ICCPR permits derogation. Is this valid?

I — Issue

Whether State Y can suspend the right to fair trial and hold detainees indefinitely without judicial review under Art. 4 ICCPR during a declared emergency.

R — Rule

• ICCPR Art. 4(1) — Derogation in time of public emergency threatening the life of the nation is permitted to the extent strictly required
• Art. 4(2) — Lists non-derogable rights — but Art. 14 (fair trial) is not among them — so it can be restricted
• HRC General Comment 29 (2001) — Derogation must be strictly necessary; non-derogable habeas corpus protection remains; prolonged detention without judicial review is never “strictly required”
• Art. 9(3) ICCPR — Even during emergency, anyone arrested must be brought before a judge promptly

A — Analysis

Art. 14 (fair trial) is derogable under Art. 4 — but only to the extent strictly required. Three years without production before any judicial authority is not “strictly required” by any emergency — it is indefinite executive detention. Moreover, Art. 9(3) requires prompt judicial review — this survives derogation under General Comment 29. Even if some trial procedures can be modified, abolishing judicial oversight entirely for 3 years far exceeds the margin of derogation.

C — Conclusion

State Y’s detention policy violates ICCPR. While Art. 14 is technically derogable, 3 years without any judicial review exceeds the “strictly required” threshold. Art. 9(3) rights to prompt judicial review remain operative even in emergencies under General Comment 29. State Y must produce detainees before a court or release them.

📄 The full PDF bundle has 6 more problems for Unit II — UDHR customary law status, ICESCR progressive realisation, HR Council UPR challenge, OHCHR mandate, and ICCPR non-derogable rights test. Get the Notes + Question Bank bundle — ₹199